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Background of Teaching Principles

   There are many different theories of how people learn, however, the two that are to be discussed are closely related to how my students learn and how these have affected the planning of my teaching.

   Cognitivists have an alternative view and instead of placing their focus on the task, they place their focus on the learners and how they gain and organise their knowledge (Reece and Walker 2003). The basis of this is that learners do not merely receive information, but actively think about what it means to them, learning (Reece and Walker 2003).
The first of the theorists that will be explored, is that of Vygotsky. He asserted that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).

   A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behaviour. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone.

   I believe in my teaching practice, that I adopt a Vygotskian model of teaching and learning. This is known as a social-constructivist model, in which the learners actively construct their own knowledge- by way of discussion, research, reflection, social interaction and interdependence in the development of their own thinking and learning. On a day to day basis, each student draws upon their prior experiences, shares ideas with their peers and is then guided, not directed to discover and thus take responsibility for their own learning. This approach that I have endorsed has indeed, proved to successfully provide opportunities for encouraging learner autonomy and personal involvement. There are various evaluation methods that are applied within my setting and therefore adaptations to learner needs are regularly addressed, so that effective and optimal learning takes place.

   Humanistic approach
The humanistic approach is founded on the theory that all learning is individual (Reece and Walker 2003). The theory is based on the Socratic approach where you do not need to tell learners anything, just ask them the right questions and they will find out for themselves (Reece and walker 2003). According to Gray et al (2001), success or failure in learning ahs as much to do with personal or emotional states as it has to do with motivation or intelligence.

   All human beings have the potential for realising the best of themselves, but whether or not they achieve this depends upon meeting more basic needs (Gray et al 2001). Maslow developed the idea of a hierarchy of needs, which is usually represented as a pyramid (Gary et al 2001)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

(Gray et al 2001)

   The physiological needs are the basic survival needs, such as food, water and shelter (Petty 2001). If these needs are met i.e. the learners are well fed, are not thirsty and are neither too warm nor too cold, then the higher needs take their place (Petty 2001). A learner will have great difficulty in remaining motivated if they are hungry or thirsty or too warm. Room temperature is a big problem in some of the temporary buildings in which I teach, these buildings get far too warm in the summer and can be stifling in the winter. One of the first things I do when I arrive in one of these classrooms is to get the learners to open the windows so that the temperature falls and the room becomes less stuffy.

   Safety needs are concerned with physical and physiological safety (Gary 2001). This means that the learners need to be in an environment where they do not feel anxiety or dread, and that the environment is stable (Petty 2001). Basically this means that the teacher should not use threats or punishment or any technique that would belittle or intimidate a learner. The teacher needs to establish the learning environment as one of trust.

   Social needs are concerned with the need to feel part of a social group (Gray et al 2001). If these needs are not met then the learner can feel lonely, and can feel hostility towards other members of the group. The esteem needs cover self esteem needs (desire for achievement, confidence and to be able to cope by oneself), and respect, where the learner desires recognition, status and dignity (Petty 2001). The self actualisation needs cover personal growth and development, self expression and the need to search for identity (Petty 2001).

   According to Petty (2001) if the first two needs are met then a teacher can harness Maslow’s needs by making sure that:

   • All learners feel valued, accepted and included and that a group ethos is developed. There is also opportunity for group work
   • All students experience success, and get praise and other reinforcement. There are opportunities for learners to gain respect from the teacher and from the other learners
   • Routine tasks sometimes make way for choice, creative work and other opportunities for learners to express their individuality. The teacher gives opportunity for the learners to think for themselves and to satisfy their curiosity.

   Using these techniques will maintain a learner’s motivation, as will the use of praise and constructive criticism (Petty 2001).

   The list below shows some forms of positive reinforcement that I utilise during my lessons (adapted from Petty 2001). These are from of extrinsic motivation:
   • Giving attention to the learners
   • Respecting the learner as an individual 
   • Listening with interest to what the learner ahs to say
   • Accepting an idea from a learner
   • Showing an interest in the learners’ work
   • Laughing at joke made by the learner
   • Giving grades and marks
   • Writing comments on written work
   • Giving smiles, praise etc.
   • Pointing out where a learner has made a good point in an assignment

   These techniques help the learners feel part of the group, help to foster a sense of trust and give them a sense of achievement for a job well done. The use of these techniques makes the learning process an enjoyable one for all concerned, a class of demotivated learners is likely to demotivate the teacher, unless of course it was the teacher that demotivated the learners through unimaginative teaching. I also find that being generous with praise with the less confident learners, gives them the encouragement to answer questions and to volunteer information. A nod of the head or a sound of encouragement can persuade a hesitant learner to keep going rather than clamming up. As I mentioned elsewhere in this assignment, I have also used rewards such as sweets to motivate a very quiet class into talking to me and to encourage them to participate in the seminar.

The learners also make use of intrinsic motivations such as:
   • Completing a task that is of interest to them
   • Satisfying their own curiosity
   • Being creative
   • Meeting a challenge that they themselves have set
   • Feeling ‘I can do it’
   • Completing a task they set themselves
   • By achieving personal objectives
   When teaching learners it is often necessary to explain various concepts to them. In order to understand a concept, the learners need to be given examples so that they can fully grasp the definition (Petty 2001, Reece and Walker 2003). The learners can then be asked for examples to check that they had understood the concept and were using it correctly (Petty 2001). When trying to teach the concept of ‘good welfare’, I gave the learners examples of situations where welfare had been compromised, and also examples of good welfare. I then asked the learners for other examples, getting them to categorise them as good or poor welfare. This helped them to grasp the concept of welfare which is a woolly concept at the best of times and means different things to different people. This type of approach utilises inductive and deductive teaching methods.

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